n.热力学

The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of energy conservation, states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transformed from one form to another.
热力学第一定律，又称能量守恒定律，指出能量既不能被创造也不能被消灭，只能从一种形式转化为另一种形式。
Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness in a system; in a closed system, entropy always increases over time.
熵是衡量系统无序或随机性的度量；在封闭系统中，熵总是随着时间的推移而增加。
A Carnot engine is the most efficient heat engine possible, operating between two temperatures and achieving no net work output when the temperature of the cold reservoir approaches absolute zero.
卡诺热机是最高效的热机，它在两个温度之间运行，在冷热源温度接近绝对零度时，其净功输出为零。
The second law of thermodynamics asserts that the total entropy of an isolated system will always increase over time, leading to the concept of irreversibility.
热力学第二定律表明孤立系统的总熵总是随时间增加，导致不可逆性概念的产生。
Endothermic reactions absorb heat from their surroundings, while exothermic reactions release heat.
吸热反应（放热反应）从周围吸收热量，而放热反应则释放热量。
The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law states that it is impossible for a device to operate in a cycle, extracting heat from a single reservoir and converting it entirely into work.
开尔文-普朗克表述的第二定律指出，一个设备不可能在一个循环中，仅从单一热源提取热量并将其完全转化为功。
The Clausius inequality helps determine whether a process is reversible or irreversible by comparing the change in entropy with the heat exchanged.
克劳修斯不等式通过比较熵的变化与交换的热量来判断过程是可逆还是不可逆。
The ideal gas law combines the concepts of pressure, volume, temperature, and number of particles to describe the behavior of an ideal gas at constant temperature and pressure.
理想气体定律结合压力、体积、温度和粒子数的概念，描述理想气体在恒温恒压下的行为。
A phase transition occurs when a substance changes from one state (solid, liquid, or gas) to another without passing through the intermediate state.
相变是指物质从一种状态（固态、液态或气态）直接转变到另一种状态，而不经过中间状态的过程。
The heat capacity of a material is its ability to store thermal energy; it varies depending on the material's properties and temperature.
材料的比热容是指其储存热能的能力；这取决于材料的性质和温度。